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Abstract: Governments all over the world are investigating how to mitigate environmental risk and how to address climate policies to achieve sustainable development goals (SDGs). This study focuses on interactions between climate policy development and different SDGs. The study analyses panel data for the EU countries. Greenhouse gas emissions were used as a dependent variable. The study tests the non-linear effects, which allow Environmental Kuznets curve phenomena to be identified and extends this line of research by checking the non-linearity and time-lagging of all explanatory variables. The research results show that it is possible to achieve climate policy goals not only directly, but also indirectly by facilitating the implementation of other SDG goals like inter alia SDG9 (innovation and infrastructure), SDG11 (sustainable cities and communities) and SDG17 (environmental taxation). The impact of particular policies is also dependent on geographic-specific effects, analysed with the use of factorial analysis. Achievement of environmental goals can be supported indirectly through the implementation of other UN Agenda 2030 policies. In the EU, this is aided by realizing SDGs on innovation and infrastructure, sustainable cities, and environmental taxation. These effects vary geographically. For example, environmental taxes are a more effective tool in Western and Northern Europe.
Abstract: Currently, the world faces an existential threat of climate change, and every government across the globe is trying to come up with strategies to tackle the severity of climate change in every way possible. To this end, the use of clean energy rather than fossil fuel energy sources is critical, as it can reduce greenhouse gas emissions and pave the way for carbon neutrality. This study examines the impact of the energy cleanability gap on four different climate vulnerabilities, such as ecosystem, food, health, and housing vulnerabilities, considering 47 European and non-European high-income countries. The study considers samples from 2002 to 2019. This study precedes the empirical analysis in the context of a quadratic relationship between the energy cleanability gap and climate vulnerability. The study uses system-generalized methods of the moment as the main technique, while panel quantile regression is a robustness analysis. Fixed effect and random effect models have also been incorporated. The study finds that the energy cleanability gap and all four climate vulnerabilities demonstrate a U-shaped relationship in both European and non-European countries, implying that when the energy cleanability gap increases, climate vulnerability decreases, but after reaching a certain threshold, it starts to increase. Development expenditure is found to be negatively affecting food and health vulnerabilities in European nations, while it increases food vulnerability and decreases health vulnerability in non-European nations. Regarding industrialization's impact on climate vulnerabilities, the study finds opposite effects for the European and non-European economies. On the other hand, for both groups, trade openness decreases climate vulnerabilities. Based on these results, the study recommends speeding up the energy transition process from fossil fuel energy resources towards clean energy resources to obtain carbon neutrality in both European and non-European groups.
Abstract: This work is aimed to investigate the carbon emissions trend in the European Union. Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index and Tapio's methodology are used for decomposing the carbon emissions and investigating the decoupling factors respectively. Seven indexes are identified, namely carbon intensity of the energy sector, energy consumption structure, energy intensity, climatic factor, Gross Domestic Product per Capita, population distribution, and population evolution. These indexes are then grouped in three macro-categories, specifically technical factors, climatic effect, and socio-economic factors. The study covers the period 1995–2019 and considers EU 27 countries at an aggregate and individual level. Carbon emissions in EU 27 reduced of 689 Mt from 1995 to 2019. Technical factors are responsible for a decrease of 1723 Mt, the climatic effect determines a reduction of 362 Mt, whereas socio-economic factors cause an increase of 1397 Mt. The Strong Decoupling status is achieved in EU 27 in the period 1995–2019 with a decoupling index equal to −0.4. This means that carbon emissions reduced while Gross Domestic Product increased. To provide more precise insights, the paper also presents analyses at individual country level and the splitting in five temporal sub-periods. [Display omitted] LMDI and Tapio's methodologies are used to study decomposition and decoupling of CO2 emissions in EU. Technical, climatic, and socio-economic factors are highlighted by using a 7 factors identity. Technical factors contribute to the reduction of the carbon emissions and support the decoupling.
Abstract: The diffusion of net-zero technologies is highly recommended as European Union (EU) countries aim for carbon neutrality by 2050. Germany, France, and the Netherlands are EU countries that invest heavily in environmental patents, and the relationship between patent development and carbon reduction in these countries provides important clues for carbon neutrality goals. Therefore, this study examines the effects of technological change (environmental patents), human capital, and income on carbon (CO ) emissions for three EU member countries over the period 1974–2019 under the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis. For this purpose, the study applies the Fourier-ADL approach and various time series estimators. The results of the study show that the EKC hypothesis is valid for EU countries and that human capital contributes to carbon reduction. Moreover, environmental patents contribute to CO mitigation in Germany, but environmental patents do not have a significant effect on emission reduction in France and the Netherlands. These results suggest that France and the Netherlands should invest more in environmental patents and, like Germany, benefit from the CO reduction effects of environmental patents.
Abstract: The role of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is undoubtedly crucial in achieving the climate goals and end-of-century global warming target. Given its role as a leader in global climate actions, the European Union (EU) is expected to take a leading role in CDR developments: yet there is a lack of depth in the region's CDR strategy and deployment. A comprehensive CDR approach based on integrated assessment modelling for the EU is important to give valuable insights into optimal CDR-based mitigation pathways regarding scalability, technology readiness, trade-offs with the Earth system, and deployment strategies. Here, we have used the GCAM-CDR v1.0 to model a diverse novel CDR portfolio of bioenergy carbon capture and storage (BECCS), direct air capture and carbon storage (DACCS), terrestrial enhanced weathering (TEW), and ocean-enhanced weathering (OEW) in a mid-century carbon neutrality target. We find that CO2 removal by BECCS scales quickly to gigatonnes of CO2 removal by mid-century, and DACCS is a latter-century mitigation technology in the EU's emission mitigation pathway. TEW will play a crucial role in achieving carbon neutrality in the EU if this climate goal is advanced by a decade. Modelled results show that achieving carbon neutrality through diverse CDR relies heavily on significant emission reductions in the industrial and hard-to-abate sectors. Finally, we observed that nuclear power will be an important energy resource for the energy-consuming CDR technologies in Europe. This study recommends that the EU carbon removal structure should not be limited to DACCS, but rather allow for innovations in carbon removal technologies. Achieving the EU's carbon neutrality targets requires a diversified Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) strategy, with BECCS identified as a scalable solution by mid-century and nuclear energy as a key support for energy-intensive CDR technologies.
Abstract: •CCUS development among EU countries with the latest progress in the field.•Realization of EGD targets with CCUS technology in EU.•Applicability of benchmarking method to compare environmental profiles.•UK and the Netherlands are among top countries with rapid CCUS development.•Poland and Germany with a high level of difficulty in achieving the EGD targets. Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is a technology highlighted as one of the tools in climate change mitigation and one of the ways to reach the goal of 1.5℃ set by the Paris Agreement. The European Commission (EC) developed this goal by creating and implementing the European Green Deal (EGD) – the European Union's (EU) environmental policy. This paper provides an analysis of environmental policies and an overview of crucial CCUS projects of selected member states based on a benchmarking analysis of 27+ UK member states. An overall review of a total of 28 countries was undertaken based on economic and environmental factors. Afterward, a benchmarking analysis was performed ranking the countries according to the TOP10 for the selected five categories: total net emissions with international transport, percentage share of the energy sector, percentage share of fossil fuels, percentage share of fossil fuels in the Gross Electricity Production (GEP), and numbers of CCUS projects. Subsequently, a detailed and comprehensive overview of four selected member states was done, with a special focus on the national energy policy towards net-zero emission goals, the role of CCUS in domestic environmental policy, with current projects and facilities development. Finally, this paper outlines how the EGD has reformed the national energy policies of selected member states, and what is the part of CCUS technology in the national efforts towards climate neutrality.
Abstract: Cities represent unique spaces for climate mitigation where wide-ranging action to reduce emissions meets ambition and collaboration. This research work distils climate neutrality narratives for 362 cities that expressed interest in the European Mission on 100 Climate-Neutral and Smart Cities and focuses on the 112 cities selected to spearhead the process of reaching climate neutrality by 2030 (representing a mitigation potential of 318.3 megatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions). The method involves steps that profile the characteristics of these cities, enunciate cross-cutting patterns in cities’ visions by thematic groupings, and compare 14 contextual factors with 77 possible main barriers. There are both similarities and differences among the results as a basis for learning together and certain barriers can be relatively more dominant in some thematic groupings, such as fragmentation of responsibilities. As a synthesis of the main findings, the original analyses are used to derive and prioritise nine high-level recommendations based on the cities' visions, contextual factors, and expected main barriers. Opportunities for mobilising transformative change relate to transforming siloed into integrated approaches, inclusive climate governance and collaborations, innovative financing, welfare and just transition as well as planning, implementation, and policy coherence. The advances provide pioneering steps for stimulating co-learning processes among Mission Cities and beyond to support the transition to climate neutrality and open up opportunities to progress together in climate action while producing impact with global reach. [Display omitted] Visions and narratives for achieving climate neutrality by 2030 are enunciated across cities. The 112 Mission Cities represent an emissions reduction potential of 318.3 MtCO2eq. Thematic groupings are formed by cross-comparing degree of ambition and collaboration.•Recommendations are prioritised based on enablers and barriers in the thematic groupings. Cross-cutting patterns in cities' visions provide opportunities to stimulate co-learning.
Abstract: The changes in energy use and energy-mix are important in ensuring the implementation of the sustainability goals, especially those related to the climate change. Even though there have been attempts to analyse the energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emission in the European Union, there is still a lack of research that considers structural change, fossil energy consumption, and energy-mix simultaneously. In this context, the present paper addresses the growth in energy-related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the European Union (EU) agriculture. The index decomposition analysis based on the logarithmic mean Divisia index is implemented over the period of 2004–2021. The change in the GHG intensity at the EU level is factorized with respect to the structural effect and those related to the energy intensity, the share of the fossil energy, and carbon factor for the fossil energy. The results suggest that a decline in the energy intensity appeared as the main driver pushing the energy-related GHG emission intensity down in the EU agriculture. This calls for further actions directed towards the increase of the use of renewables.
Abstract: Global climate change and the rising volume of world trade have made achieving carbon neutrality in shipping essential for meeting the temperature control targets outlined in the Paris Agreement. Consequently, the European Union (EU) has emerged as a strong advocate for carbon neutrality in shipping and is integrating the shipping industry into its Emissions Trading System (ETS) to enable decarbonisation. The EU's unilateral measure is expected to trigger a series of reactions from the global shipping industry. As a result, China, both a major shipping country and developing nation, could potentially attract significant international attention. This study examines the EU ETS for shipping from the perspective of international law. On one hand, the “Kyoto Protocol” does not exclude parties other than the International Maritime Organization (IMO) from taking unilateral measures to address the issue of carbon emissions from shipping. Furthermore, in accordance with the principle of national territorial sovereignty stipulated in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), the EU has the right to reduce shipping emissions only within its national jurisdiction. Therefore, the EU has the legal authority to adopt an ETS for shipping, but the effectiveness of its extraterritorial jurisdiction lacks the support of international law. However, since the EU ETS for shipping applies to all ships without distinction, it may potentially violate the principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR), which could have negative implications for the shipping industry in developing countries. This study focuses on China as the research subject and offers potential solutions for the country when addressing the EU ETS for shipping.
Abstract: Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through freight transportation have received growing concerns and are one of the critical issues for the United Nation's Sustainability Development Goals (SDGs). The literature survey reveals that freight transportation makes up global GHG emissions and its carbon emissions may double by 2050. In European Union (EU) carbon taxes are a promising way to reduce CO2Carbon di oxide and other GHG emissions. The European Energy Exchange (EEX) recently launched its new Zero Carbon Freight Index (ZCFI). EEX-ZCFI provides the first insight into how much the price of carbon will add to freight costs. This work developed the analysis of a ZCFI using a statistical model (i.e. GARCH and FBM) with the intention of offering a reference for understating the wide-range ramifications of such indices. Preprocessing methods (descriptive statistics, unit root test, and an ARCH effect test) are performed to verify the validity of the GARCH (1,1) model for forecasting volatility. This work employs the EEX-ZCFI time series for January 2020 to August 2022. To further examine the carbon freight indices, a Ljung-Box test method based on the GARCH model was applied. The bootstrapped returns are forming a linear relation with the forecast data; therefore, it concluded that the model designed strongly fits with the time series. With GARCH optimal model parameters we have forecasted the carbon freight index time series data and hypothetically examined the influence on the carbon emission with C5TC time series, which can also be applied in the Asia-pacific region.
Abstract: Hydrogen and carbon capture and storage are pivotal to decarbonize the European energy system in a broad range of pathway scenarios. Yet, their timely uptake in different sectors and distribution across countries are affected by supply options of renewable and fossil energy sources. Here, we analyse the decarbonization of the European energy system towards 2060, covering the power, heat, and industry sectors, and the change in use of hydrogen and carbon capture and storage in these sectors upon Europe’s decoupling from Russian gas. The results indicate that the use of gas is significantly reduced in the power sector, instead being replaced by coal with carbon capture and storage, and with a further expansion of renewable generators. Coal coupled with carbon capture and storage is also used in the steel sector as an intermediary step when Russian gas is neglected, before being fully decarbonized with hydrogen. Hydrogen production mostly relies on natural gas with carbon capture and storage until natural gas is scarce and costly at which time green hydrogen production increases sharply. The disruption of Russian gas imports has significant consequences on the decarbonization pathways for Europe, with local energy sources and carbon capture and storage becoming even more important. Given the highlighted importance of carbon capture and storage in reaching the climate targets, it is essential that policymakers ameliorate regulatory challenges related to these value chains. CCS is instrumental in reaching European decarbonization goals.•Removal of Russian gas increases value of CCS.•Disconnection of Russian gas leads to faster CCS rollout. Green hydrogen accounts for a larger share after removal of Russian gas.•Blue hydrogen is still cost-competitive without Russian gas.
Abstract: The healthcare sector has an environmental impact of around 4.6% of global CO2 emissions, contributing to aggravating the climate crisis. However, the impact of the health sector’s emissions on human health is not regularly assessed. We aim to estimate the health burden and associated costs of the health sector’s carbon footprint within the European Union (EU). We calculated disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) and associated costs based on human health damage factors (DALYs/kg-CO2e) by considering four scenarios. Three scenarios for shared socioeconomic pathways (S1 – high growth, S2 − baseline, and S3 − low growth) represented variations of global society, demographics, and economics until 2100. A fourth scenario (S4) considered the current EU’s 55% reduction goal of greenhouse gas emissions. The healthcare sector’s emissions per capita (in CO2-equivalent) in 2019 were extracted from the Lancet Countdown, and population data were retrieved from Eurostat for the same year. In the EU, 365,047 DALYs (95%CI: 194,692–535,403) are expected to be caused by the health sector’s emissions at baseline (S2). In an S1 scenario, the burden would slightly decrease to 316,374 DALYs (95%CI: 170,355–462,393), whereas a S3 scenario would increase 486,730 DALYs (95%CI: 243,365–681,422). If EU’s carbon goals are met, the burden could be substantially reduced to 164,271 DALYs (95%CI: 87,611–240,931). Costs can amount to 25.6 billion euros, when considering DALYs monetisation. CO2 emissions from the health sector are expected to significantly impact human health. Therefore, it is important to ensure that EU climate policies for public buildings are in line with the Paris Agreement, increase funding for climate mitigation programs within the healthcare sector, and review clinical practices at the local level.
Abstract: Green hydrogen (GH) has been included in the steel emission reduction plans of many countries. This study evaluates the status quo of GH and steel industry and the related subsidy and regulatory policies in two major steelmaking countries/regions: China and the European Union. A system dynamics model coupling GH and steel industry is established to conduct simulation analysis of the low-carbon transition path of GH replacing fossil fuels in these two countries/regions' steel industry under several carbon emission reduction scenarios. Results verify the feasibility of using GH in the steelmaking and GH's contribution to the steel industry's carbon emission reduction. And this study assesses the policy impacts on the development of green hydrogen steel and gives specific policy implications on the timing and measures. The methodology and policy tools in this study also provide the reference for other countries who are still in wait-and-see attitude towards the development of GH steel. A system dynamics model of green hydrogen steel development in China and EU. Simulation under different carbon mitigation scenarios for green hydrogen steel. The contribution of green hydrogen steel to the steel industry's carbon mitigation. Policies implications for carbon mitigation and development of green hydrogen steel.
Abstract: Carbon (C) sink and stock are among the most important ecosystem services provided by forests in climate change mitigation policies. In this context, old-growth forests constitute an essential reference point for the development of close-to-nature silviculture, including C management techniques. Despite their small extent in Europe, temperate old-growth forests are assumed to be among the most prominent in terms of biomass and C stored. However, monitoring and reporting of C stocks is still poorly understood. To better understand the C stock amount and distribution in temperate old-growth forests, we estimated the C stock of two old-growth stands in the Dinaric Alps applying different assessment methods, including direct and indirect approaches (e.g., field measurements and allometric equations vs. IPCC standard methods). This paper presents the quantification and the distribution of C across the five main forest C pools (i.e., aboveground, belowground, deadwood, litter and soil) in the study areas and the differences between the applied methods. We report a very prominent C stock in both study areas (507 Mg C ha ), concentrated in a few large trees (36% of C in 5% of trees). Moreover, we found significant differences in C stock estimation between direct and indirect methods. Indeed, the latter tended to underestimate or overestimate depending on the pool considered. Comparison of our results with previous studies and data collected in European forests highlights the prominence of temperate forests, among which the Dinaric Alps old-growth forests are the largest. These findings provide an important benchmark for the development of future approaches to the management of the European temperate forests. However, further and deeper research on C stock and fluxes in old-growth stands is of prime importance to understand the potential and limits of the climate mitigation role of forests.
Abstract: The role of carbon dioxide removal (CDR) is undoubtedly crucial in achieving the climate goals and end-of-century global warming target. Given its role as a leader in global climate actions, the European Union (EU) is expected to take a leading role in CDR developments: yet there is a lack of depth in the region's CDR strategy and deployment. A comprehensive CDR approach based on integrated assessment modelling for the EU is important to give valuable insights into optimal CDR-based mitigation pathways regarding scalability, technology readiness, trade-offs with the Earth system, and deployment strategies. Here, we have used the GCAM-CDR v1.0 to model a diverse novel CDR portfolio of bioenergy carbon capture and storage (BECCS), direct air capture and carbon storage (DACCS), terrestrial enhanced weathering (TEW), and ocean-enhanced weathering (OEW) in a mid-century carbon neutrality target. We find that CO2 removal by BECCS scales quickly to gigatonnes of CO2 removal by mid-century, and DACCS is a latter-century mitigation technology in the EU's emission mitigation pathway. TEW will play a crucial role in achieving carbon neutrality in the EU if this climate goal is advanced by a decade. Modelled results show that achieving carbon neutrality through diverse CDR relies heavily on significant emission reductions in the industrial and hard-to-abate sectors. Finally, we observed that nuclear power will be an important energy resource for the energy-consuming CDR technologies in Europe. This study recommends that the EU carbon removal structure should not be limited to DACCS, but rather allow for innovations in carbon removal technologies. Achieving the EU's carbon neutrality targets requires a diversified Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) strategy, with BECCS identified as a scalable solution by mid-century and nuclear energy as a key support for energy-intensive CDR technologies.
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