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Abstract by the authors: Increasing plastic waste recycling is a milestone of European environmental policy to reduce environmental impacts and dependency on foreign resources. This is particularly challenging for plastic packaging waste, consisting of very heterogeneous fractions and typically rather contaminated. In this study, we collected primary data from plants sorting and recycling plastic packaging waste to illustrate process efficiencies, material flows, and barriers. We observed that significant losses of target materials occurred both at sorting and recycling stages. These were higher for polymers such as films, polypropylene and polystyrene, and lower for polyethylene terephthalate and high-density polyethylene. Applying material flow analysis, we estimated an overall end-of-life recycling rate for post-consumer plastic packaging waste in EU27 in 2017 of 14% (not considering waste exported as recycled; 25% otherwise). An improved scenario for 2030 showed that achieving an overall end-of-life recycling rate of about 49% was possible when best available practices and technologies were implemented. To fulfil the ambitious recycling targets set at EU27 level (55% overall recycling rate), substantial improvements are necessary at the plants, product design, collection system, and market level. Our findings further indicate that films and other problematic contaminants in the input-waste considerably hamper the recovery rates, thus the improvement of the efficiency of the collection systems is imperative. In parallel, the development of markets for lower value fractions, e.g. polypropylene, could be a way forward to increase recycling, while improvements in the product design will considerably reduce the presence of impurities and contaminants in the input-waste.
Abstract by the authors: The way plastics are currently produced, used and disposed does not capture the economic benefits of a more ‘circular’ approach and is dramatically harming the environment. It is relevant to determine which European countries can be considered more or less efficient in the end-of-life of plastic products processes, what the sources of the inefficiencies are, and how those less efficient countries could improve their performance towards a more circular economy. Although some countries have developed a variety of quantitative indicators, there is scarcity of adequate metrics for performance measurements. This paper estimates the efficiency of 26 European countries in the context of Circular Economy, for the period 2006–2016, considering the generation of waste, recovery and recycling of plastic, with a methodology based on the Multidirectional Efficiency Analysis. Apart from identifying the most efficient countries in the studied period, results show that efficiency increases for most countries with time, and that many countries reach the full efficiency by the end of the study period, and especially by 2016. Input analysis shows that increasing capital seems to be a main driver towards efficiency, since the other inputs are used with a similar efficiency by most countries. Output analysis suggest that the difference among countries efficiency is not in their reduction of total waste or emissions, but rather in the improvement of their economic growth in a circular way, that is, improving GDP but also the recovering and recycling activities. These results could be useful to design policies towards a more efficient and circular use of plastics. [Display omitted] •Circular economy of European countries, with plastic waste, recovery and recycling•Efficiencies increase for most countries with time.•Poor management of resources between 2007 and 2009, the labor is the most affected.•Increasing capital seems to be a main driver towards efficiency.•Difference in countries efficiency is in GDP, recovering and recycling activities.
Abstract by the authors: Growing environmental concerns associated with the accumulation of plastic waste in the natural environment has incentivised considerable research into renewable alternatives, and more recently, alternative waste management strategies. This review aims to introduce poly (lactic acid) (PLA), a bioplastic, and recent research within the field. Attention will then shift to research surrounding plastic waste management. Various end-of-life (EOL) options available to plastics will be discussed more broadly, before presenting existing technologies, challenges and future opportunities exclusively for PLA. Herein, all waste management strategies presented for PLA are discussed within the context of industrial feasibility.
Abstract by the authors: Polyethylene (PE) is one of the most common types of plastic. Whilst an increasing share of post-consumer plastic waste from Europe is collected for recycling, 46% of separated PE waste is exported outside of the source country (including intra-EU trade). The fate of this exported European plastic is not well known. This study integrated data on PE waste flows in 2017 from UN Comtrade, an open repository providing detailed international trade data, with best available information on waste management in destination countries, to model the fate of PE exported for recycling from Europe (EU-28, Norway and Switzerland) into: recycled high-density PE (HDPE) and low-density PE (LDPE) resins, “landfill”, incineration and ocean debris. Data uncertainty was reflected in three scenarios representing high, low and average recovery efficiency factors in material recovery facilities and reprocessing facilities, and different ocean debris fate factors. The fates of exported PE were then linked back to the individual European countries of export. Our study estimated that 83,187 Mg (tonnes) (range: 32,115–180,558 Mg), or 3% (1–7%) of exported European PE in 2017 ended up in the ocean, indicating an important and hitherto undocumented pathway of plastic debris entering the oceans. The countries with the greatest percentage of exported PE ending up as recycled HDPE or LDPE were Luxembourg and Switzerland (90% recycled for all scenarios), whilst the country with the lowest share of exported PE being recycled was the United Kingdom (59–80%, average 69% recycled). The results showed strong, significant positive relationships between the percentage of PE exported out of Europe and the percentage of exports which potentially end up as ocean debris. Export countries may not be the ultimate countries of origin owing to complex intra-EU trade in PE waste. Although somewhat uncertain, these mass flows provide pertinent new evidence on the efficacy and risks of current plastic waste management practices pertinent to emerging regulations around trade in plastic waste, and to the development of a more circular economy.
Abstract by the authors: Despite its remoteness, marine plastic pollution is a significant environmental problem in the Arctic. In Svalbard, for example, plastics are found on the shorelines, in the water column, on the ocean floor and in the ice. Organisms have been observed to be entangled in nets and ingestion of plastics has been documented in a range of organisms. Notably almost all Arctic bird species have been found to have ingested plastic, with Northern fulmars being particularly affected, with 89 % of samples recorded as having ingested plastic. Identification and valuation of ecosystem services affected by marine plastic pollution can provide input for decision makers in evaluating and comparing management policies concerning this unique environment. This study employs the contingent valuation method (CVM) for eliciting the willingness to pay (WTP) of Norwegian households for reducing marine plastic pollution around the archipelago of Svalbard. An Integrated Choice and Latent Variable model (ICLV) is employed to explore attitudinal determinants of WTP. We find an average WTP for an initiative to reduce marine plastics of NOK 5,485 (USD 642) per household per year. The ICLV results reveal that people who are relatively more concerned about marine plastic pollution and who deem the proposed initiative effective are willing to pay more (up to 85 % and 50 %, respectively). The use of ICLV models in CVM and recommendations for future research are discussed.
Abstract by the authors: Despite an exponential increase in available data on marine plastic debris globally, information on levels and trends of plastic pollution and especially microplastics in the Arctic remains scarce. The few available peer-reviewed scientific works, however, point to a ubiquitous distribution of plastic particles in all environmental compartments, including sea ice. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the sources, distribution, transport pathways and fate of meso- and microplastics with a focus on the European Arctic and discuss observed and projected impacts on biota and ecosystems.
Abstract by the authors: Neuston samples were collected with a Manta trawl in the rim of the Arctic Ocean, in the Northern Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea at eleven coastal and open-sea locations. All samples contained plastics identified by FTIR microscopy. Altogether, 110 microplastics pieces were classified according to size, shape, and polymer type. The concentrations at the locations were generally low (x̅ = 0.06, SD ± 0.04 particles m−3) as compared to previous observations. The highest concentrations were found towards the Arctic Ocean, while those in the Baltic Sea were generally low. The most abundant polymer type was polyethylene. Detected particle types were mainly fragments. The number of films and fibers was very low. The mean particle size was 2.66 mm (SD ± 1.55 mm). Clustering analyses revealed that debris compositions in the sea regions had characteristic differences possibly reflecting the dependences between compositions, drifting distances, sinking rates, and local oceanographic conditions.
Abstract by the authors: The 2018 European Strategy for Plastics in a Circular Economy identifies a set of actions to reduce plastic waste in the EU in the near future. To implement this strategic view, appropriate policy tools need to be identified within Member Countries. The present work aims at investigating farmers’ attitudes towards the use of traditional market-based tools (i.e. subsidies and tax-credits) as well as other initiatives such as a pay-back mechanism under an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) to reduce plastic waste in agriculture. We analyse the case of the province of Foggia, an area which is recognised as being the largest plain in southern Italy. We consider a survey of 1,783 farmers and a multinomial regression model to infer on the probability of adopting the above policy tools. Key results suggest that the choice of each policy tool would be affected by the type of plastic waste generated. In particular, plastic packaging and plastic films would be likely to affect the probability to opt for a subsidy. In contrast, other types of plastic waste mainly generated by cereal crops activities (e.g. plastic bags and bottles for fertilisers and chemicals) would favour the adoption of a tax-credit mechanism. As for other aspects, horticulture production and the proximity to a collection site for waste disposal would increase the probability of adopting an EPR policy to contribute to plastic waste reduction.
Abstract by the authors: Since the environmental pollution by microplastics is a relatively new area of research, the main problem is the lack of appropriate rules, regulations and parameters globally. Therefore, the sources of primary and secondary microplastics particles vary from source to source, and due to this the difference in the division of microplastic particles by size arises too. Moreover, various techniques and technologies are used when testing seawater and sediment as well. Ultimately, with different qualities of the obtained results, it leads to difficult and/or inadequate comparison. Furthermore, the research has been mainly conducted on smaller marine organisms, which needs to be extended to other larger organisms as well as to the human population to create a complete image of the negative effects of contamination of the marine food chain and the marine environment with microplastic particles in general.
Abstract by the authors: With current low recycling rates and exponentially increasing production of plastics there is an increase in plastic material wastage, and thus new technologies are needed for waste refining. Presently in Europe, only about 10% of plastic waste is recycled, most of which is achieved through mechanical recycling. Chemical recycling methods like pyrolysis could significantly increase these recycling rates, as it can utilize mixtures of waste plastics unlike mechanical recycling. It can also be used to treat waste of many novel materials, such as composites, especially in the emerging phase when the volumes of the new materials in markets are low making separate collection of waste not a cost-efficient option. Pyrolysis offers an environmentally sound alternative to incineration and inefficient landfilling. Currently, main challenges for pyrolysis of plastic waste are unavailability and inconsistent quality of feedstock, inefficient and hence costly sorting, non-existent markets citing lack for standardized products, and unclear regulations around plastic waste management. Possible solutions could include tight cooperation between feedstock providers and converters for securing steady quantity and quality of feedstock. Advanced pre-treatment would provide the basis for cost-effective recycling. The classification of pyrolysis liquid as a product instead of waste is needed, and the REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals) registration should be carried out to standardise the liquid oil as a product. In addition, sustainability impacts need to be clearly positive.
Abstract by the authors: In den letzten Jahren sind die Vermüllung durch Kunststoffe und deren Persistenz in der Umwelt zu einem Schwerpunkt in Forschung und Nachrichten geworden. Bioabbaubare Polymere wie Polymilchsäure gelten als geeignete Alternativen zu Standardkunststoffen. Polymilchsäure ist jedoch im Meerwasser grundsätzlich nur schlecht abbaubar. In ähnlicher Weise hängt die Abbaurate von anderen bioabbaubaren Polymeren auch entscheidend von der Umgebung ab, in der sie enden. Dieser Kurzaufsatz zeigt, dass Abbautests unter Laborbedingungen nicht auf reale Bedingungen übertragbar sind und daher ökologisch authentische und relevante Feldtestbedingungen erforderlich sind. Zudem werden ökotoxikologische Folgen von bioabbaubaren Polymeren erwogen. Auch soziale Aspekte werden betrachtet, und die Frage wird gestellt, wie bioabbaubare Polymere das Konsumverhalten und die kommunale Abfallwirtschaft beeinflussen. Dies soll einen Beitrag zur Bewertung des Potenzials bioabbaubarer Polymere als alternative Materialien zu Standardkunststoffen leisten. Wir leben im Plastikzeitalter – für die meisten von uns ist ein Leben ohne Polymere und Kunststoffe undenkbar. Ein wachsendes Problem besteht jedoch in der Vermüllung durch Kunststoffe und deren Persistenz in der Umwelt. Dieser Kurzaufsatz befasst sich mit der Frage, ob bioabbaubare Polymere wie Polymilchsäure tatsächlich eine geeignete Alternative zu Standardkunststoffen bieten können.
Abstract by the authors: The modern economy that is fast-moving and convenience centric has led to excessive consumption of plastic. This has unwittingly led to egregious accumulation of plastic waste polluting the environment. Unfortunately, present means of plastic waste management have all been proven as less than adequate; namely recycling, landfill and incineration. Recent focus on plastic waste management has seen the confluence of the developments in biodegradable polymers and microbial engineering strategy for more expedient decomposition of plastic waste at composting facilities. This review paper is an assimilation of current developments in the areas of biodegradable polymer as well as microbial strategy towards management of polymer waste. Advents in biodegradable polymers have been promising, especially with aliphatic polyesters and starch in blends or co-polymers of these. Microbial strategies have been pursued for the identification of microbial strains and understanding of their enzymatic degradation process on polymers. New insights in these two areas have been focused in improving the rate of degradation of plastic waste at composting facilities. Recent alignment of testing and certification standards is outlined to give intimate insights into the mechanisms and factors influencing biodegradation. Despite recent milestones, economic viability of composting plastic waste in mainstream waste facilities is still a distance away. As it remains that a polymer that is biodegradable is functionally inferior to conventional polymers. Rather, it requires a shift in consumer behaviour to accept less durable biodegradable plastic products, this will then lower the threshold for biodegradable polymers to become a commercial reality.
Abstract by the authors: Millions of tonnes (teragrams) of plastic waste are traded around the world every year, which plays an important role in partially substituting virgin plastics as a source of raw materials in plastic product manufacturing. In this paper, global plastic waste trade networks (GPWTNs) from 1988 to 2017 are established using the UN-Comtrade database. The spatiotemporal evolution of the GPWTNs is analyzed. Attention is given to the country ranks, inter- and intra-continental trade flows, and geo-visual communities in the GPWTNs. We also evaluate the direct and indirect impacts of China’s plastic waste import ban on the GPWTNs. The results show that the GPWTNs have small-world and scale-free properties and a core-periphery structure. The geography of the plastic waste trade is structured by Asia as the dominant importer and North America and Europe as the largest sources of plastic waste. China is the unrivaled colossus in the global plastic waste trade. After China’s import ban, the plastic waste trade flows have been largely redirected to Southeast Asian countries. Compared with import countries, export countries are more important for the robustness of GPWTNs. Clearly, developed countries will not announce bans on plastic waste exports; these countries have strong motivation to continue to shift plastic waste to poorer countries. However, the import bans from developing countries will compel developed countries to build new disposal facilities and deal with their plastic waste domestically.
Abstract by the authors: The sudden surge in demand to use plastic products due to COVID-19 pandemic has increased plastic pollution. It has resulted into degradation of a broad range of habitats and ecosystems by destroying natural functions, water quality, and environmental sustainability. However, the government agencies, scientific communities, and the public, have started to give attention to this issue. So, in the present study, we used the correlation methods to check the relationship between COVID-19 affected population with the medical plastic waste (MPW) that has developed a conceptual model of the inter-linkages between the preventive measures of COVID-19 pandemic problems and the reduction challenges of plastic waste during and after pandemic scenarios. Emerging issues in the waste management during and after the COVID-19 are established by reviewing the literature, reports, policy briefs, and information from the website concerning COVID-19. Considering MPW management issues, we selected India as a case study to analyse the plastic waste footprint (PWF) due to COVID-19 pandemic. The correlation results showed COVID-19 affected population and MPW; COVID-19 affected population and PWF have a significant relationship (R2 = 0.60; Area under ROC curve 81.4%). It suggests an urgent need for plastic waste management initiatives. Moreover, substantial plastic products, human awareness, strict government regulations, and inclusive research can check plastic waste footprints in India and worldwide. Then discuss the specific pathways through which the immediate and long-term impacts operate and highlight the issues of hampering the sustainable development goals (SDGs) progress in India and beyond. Finally, call for coordinated assessment, support and appropriate short- and long-term mitigation and the policy measures of plastic waste problems during and after the COVID-19 pandemic.
Abstract by the authors: Plastics have become a severe transboundary threat to natural ecosystems and human health, with studies predicting a twofold increase in the number of plastic debris (including micro and nano-sized plastics) by 2030. However, such predictions will likely be aggravated by the excessive use and consumption of single-use plastics (including personal protective equipment such as masks and gloves) due to COVID-19 pandemic. This review aimed to provide a comprehensive overview on the effects of COVID-19 on macroplastic pollution and its potential implications on the environment and human health considering short- and long-term scenarios; addressing the main challenges and discussing potential strategies to overcome them. It emphasises that future measures, involved in an emergent health crisis or not, should reflect a balance between public health and environmental safety as they are both undoubtedly connected. Although the use and consumption of plastics significantly improved our quality of life, it is crucial to shift towards sustainable alternatives, such as bio-based plastics. Plastics should remain in the top of the political agenda in Europe and across the world, not only to minimise plastic leakage and pollution, but to promote sustainable growth and to stimulate both green and blue- economies. Discussions on this topic, particularly considering the excessive use of plastic, should start soon with the involvement of the scientific community, plastic producers and politicians in order to be prepared for the near future.
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