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Abstract: The Mediterranean Sea is one of the most heavily polluted regions. Here we comprehensively review the current state of microplastic pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea. A total of 284 studies published between 2012 and 2023 were analyzed, revealing a continuous increase in research efforts. Our review encompassed microplastic monitoring studies across five environmental matrices: the sea surface, water column, intertidal sediment, bottom sediment, and biota, with a predominant focus observed in biota-related studies with fish, molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms being the primary focus. The study found that species such as Mullus barbatus, Mytilus galloprovincialis, Nephrops norvegicus, and Holothuria tubulosa are frequently studied species. The review also emphasizes the lack of standardized methodologies across studies, which hampers the comparability of results and the synthesis of data. The findings of this study provide a critical evaluation of the current research landscape and identify significant knowledge gaps, particularly in the underrepresented southern Mediterranean and Black Sea regions, calling for more balanced research efforts and methodological consistency in future studies. •Microplastic research in Mediterranean shows regional disparity and bias.
Abstract: Microplastics are ubiquitous in marine environments and have been documented across all ocean compartments, especially surface waters, across the world. Even though several studies identify the presence of microplastics in the world’s five oceans, there remains an overt problem of large inconsistencies in their sampling, extraction, and consequent quantification. Despite the complexity of these methodologies, researchers have tried to explore microplastic abundance in ocean surface waters. Using a systematic review approach, a dataset was derived from 73 primary studies undertaken since the year 2010 following the Oslo and Paris Conventions (OSPAR) guidelines to monitor and harmonise marine debris. The results showed differences in the abundance and distribution of microplastics in surface waters across oceans. The overall concentration of microplastics in all five oceans ranged between 0.002 and 62.50 items/m3, with a mean abundance of 2.76 items/m3. The highest mean concentration of microplastics was found in the Atlantic (4.98 items/m3), while the least was observed in the Southern Ocean (0.04 items/m3). While challenging, this paper recommends harmonisation of the sampling, separation, and identification methods across the globe to aid in the design of the appropriate mitigation strategies for reducing marine plastic pollution.
Abstract: The concentration of microplastics (MPs) in the ocean is increasing at an alarming rate, which has created numerous hazardous issues for the marine animals and micro-organisms, including coral reef ecosystems and the overall marine environment. The ecotoxicological impacts and invisible threats of MPs on marine animals stimulate the marine scientists and researchers to think about reducing the concentration of MPs in the ocean and ensuring the healthy growth of marine animals. Industrial plastic products, coastal tourism, fishing, shipping, and mismanaged waste dumping in the seas and oceans were the major sources of MPs on the ocean surface. More than 75% MPs were found as marine debris in the coastal and deep-sea sediments. Basically, the ecosystem, ecology, and the overall environment of the coastal regions shallow seas and ocean were highly affected by MP's toxic effects rather than the deep sea and ocean areas worldwide. Hence, the present review focused on toxicological threats of MPs on marine animals, ecosystems, and the overall marine environment along with policy recommendations by applying the PRISMA guidelines. The current review highlighted that different marine animal species, such as fishes, corals, mussels, and turtles were immensely threatened due to the high concentration, extreme exposure, and ingestion of MPs as food in the marine environment. Among different MPs polymers, PP, PE, PET, and PVC were the predominant polymers that were abundantly noticed throughout the world ocean among reviewed articles regarding ocean MPs pollution. Blockage of the digestive tract, genetic damage, malfunction of the immune system, and immature death of marine animals were the major toxic effects of MPs in the marine environment. To minimize the concentration of MPs and its severity on the marine animals, different world organizations such as UNEP, IUCN, FAO etc. have initiated numerous policies, but those were not successful in the true sense. Therefore, it is necessary to implement strict legislation and laws at international, national as well as regional scales. And at the same time, collaborative work of governmental and non-governmental organizations are recommended for sustainably managing the MPs waste in the seas and oceans to ensure the healthy growth of marine plants, animals, and micro-organisms.
Abstract: Coastal environments, essential for about half of the world's population living near coastlines, face severe threats from human-induced activities such as intensified urbanization, aggressive development, and particularly, coastal sewage pollution. This type of pollution, comprising untreated sewage discharging nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals, microplastics, and organic compounds, significantly endangers these ecosystems. The issue of sewage in coastal areas is complex, influenced by factors like inadequate sewage systems, septic tanks, industrial and agricultural runoff, and natural processes like coastal erosion, further complicated by oceanic dynamics like tides and currents. A global statistic reveals that over 80 % of sewage enters the environment without treatment, contributing significantly to nitrogen pollution in coastal ecosystems. This pollution not only harms marine life and ecosystems through chemical contaminants and eutrophication, leading to hypoxic zones and biodiversity loss, but also affects human health through waterborne diseases and seafood contamination. Additionally, it has substantial economic repercussions, impacting tourism, recreation, and fisheries, and causing revenue and employment losses. Addressing this issue globally involves international agreements and national legislations, but their effectiveness is hindered by infrastructural disparities, particularly in developing countries. Thus, effective management requires a comprehensive approach including advanced treatment technologies, stringent regulations, regular monitoring, and international cooperation. The international scientific community plays a crucial role in fostering a collaborative and equitable response to this pressing environmental challenge. •Pollution of coastal waters by untreated or inadequately treated sewage.•Over 80 % of sewage is discharged into the environment without treatment.•Sewage pollution leads to biodiversity loss, eutrophication, and harmful algal blooms.
Abstract: Since the 1970 s, scientists and entrepreneurs have been seeking new opportunities to mine by exploring the deep sea as a viable option. Deep-sea mining was soon seen as an alternative to terrestrial mining, especially for precious materials needed for technology. The International Seabed Authority (ISA) has been tasked with the mandate to govern deep-sea mining within the high seas, including providing exploration permits to countries, as well as eventual exploitation contracts, once such activities commence within the next decade. In this exploratory study, we analyze the levels of international cooperation and other indicators of the 21 countries that have been given permits by the ISA to explore areas for deep-sea mining in the high seas. By examining whether these countries have ratified the 17 major international sea; illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing; climate; and transnational organized crime conventions; providing a case study of worst performing countries in terms of their ratification status of such conventions; as well as examining the performance of these 21 countries on 18 global risk indicators, this paper finds that, overall, there is lack of commitment among these countries with their international obligations, while they rank moderate-to-high on the 18 global risk indicators. These findings should be a warning sign to the international community, as well as ISA that is responsible for issuing permits for deep-sea mining.
Abstract: Some forty years ago, the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (UNCLOS) created an unusual regime for states to collectively manage common natural resources on the international seabed beyond national jurisdiction (known as “the Area”) through the International Seabed Authority (ISA). In the intervening years, scientists have increasingly been warning about the serious environmental risks of mining seabed minerals. At this pivotal point in time, when states are negotiating whether or not to allow seabed mining, this essay explores the risk of undermining by mining , that is, contravening international marine environmental law and the obligations and responsibilities of states thereunder by allowing commercial mining activities to commence. We argue that allowing seabed mining in the Area at this juncture, when so much about the deep ocean remains unknown, would risk frustrating a host of measures, achievements, and progress to enhance marine environmental protection, particularly in areas beyond national jurisdiction. We begin with an overview of the ISA and its work to date, before discussing potential interactions between seabed mining and marine environmental law and policies, with a particular focus on the new ocean biodiversity agreement. We conclude by urging states to take cognizance of their overarching duty to protect and preserve the marine environment and ensure that all decisions taken with respect to seabed mining are consistent with their obligations and responsibilities under international law.
Abstract: Marine heating is the long-term climate-induced warming of oceans. Marked by more frequent, longer and widespread marine heatwave events, the severity of marine heating is generating catastrophic impacts on reef peoples and ecosystems. Here, we examine the range of policy solutions proposed to address reef heating. We find that, until recently, science-informed policy solutions were dominated by recommendations for more ‘inclusive adaptation’ and more ‘usable’ science. While these are laudable goals, such a narrow and locally-focused set of solutions suggests many researchers, policymakers, and funders have restricted their responses to the highly visible symptoms of reef heating, thereby locking in a particular science-policy pathway. Science-policy lock-in is concerning because it can popularise solutions that place the burden of response on to already vulnerable groups, avoid tackling deeper structural drivers of change, and overlook a wider range of possible solutions. In response, we showcase emerging research trends proposing a broader and more impactful agenda for reef science and policy. Such an agenda is explicitly designed to expand the policy solution space to secure a wider, more effective, and more just range of responses to ongoing marine heating for reef peoples and ecosystems.
Abstract: Wave power results from converting wind energy into kinetic energy on the ocean's surface. Alterations in long-term ocean surface waves can have significant consequences for coastal regions, including erosion and an elevated risk of flooding. Our research has unveiled a discernible and escalating trend in several crucial oceanic parameters, encompassing sea-surface temperature (SST), 10-m wind speed (W10), and significant wave height (SWH), both on a global and regional scale. Importantly, we have established statistically substantial relationships between SST and W10 and W10 and SWH. Moreover, our analysis has revealed a temporal lag of one year in the cross-correlation between SST and W10, while no such temporal offset is evident between W10 and SWH. Significantly, our investigation has provided evidence that global wave power (WP) has exhibited an annual increase of 0.54% over the comprehensive 70-year period from 1951 to 2020. This upward trajectory can be primarily attributed to the phenomenon of upper-ocean warming, which serves to enhance W10. Specifically, when SST exceeds the 70-year average by 1 °C (1951–2020), a corresponding global increase of 0.8 m/s in W10 is observed. This elevation in W10, in turn, results in a 0.5 m increase in SWH, ultimately culminating in a substantial 32.8 kW/m boost in WP. Our comprehensive analysis of the 70-year dataset underscores the predominant role played by the oceanic region situated between latitudes 30°S and 60°S, contributing a substantial 52.3% share to global WP. Closely following is the South Pacific region, contributing 28.3% to the cumulative WP, followed by the South Atlantic (23.3%), the Indian Ocean (15.1%), and the North Atlantic and North Pacific regions, each contributing approximately 9.6% and 9.3%, respectively. The findings derived from our study cast a spotlight on the intensification of W10, the amplification of SWH, and the significant escalation in WP since the 1970s. These trends are intrinsically linked to the phenomenon of upper-ocean warming. Importantly, they portend a scenario in which the world's oceans will manifest even greater energy levels should current warming trends continue unabated. •Global SST, W10, and SWH data covering 1951–2020 were analysed.•Statistical analysis reveals the cross-correlations of SST and W10 with a one-year lag, while there is no time lag for W10 and SWH.•Statistical analysis shows an upward trend for global SST, W10, SWH, and WP.•The most energetic ocean region is the S30o–S60o, which accounts for 52.3% of WP globally.•Upper-ocean warming induced stronger W10, consequently elevating SWH and significantly raising WP since the 1970s.
Abstract: Heat Wave Comprehensive (HWCI) Index can realize direct and effective comprehensive monitoring of global marine heat wave (MHW) events. The new index can effectively monitor the evolutionary patterns of MHWs at various levels. Global weak MHWs have shrunk significantly and extreme events have been expanding. As a result of global warming, major ocean basins have witnessed an increase in the number of extreme warm events and a decrease in the number of extreme cold events, increasing the number of marine heatwave (MHW) events. Previous quantification of MHW events has been limited to simple single metrics, which can only recognize some characteristics from a particular aspect. Here, we propose a new marine Heat Wave Comprehensive Index (HWCI) by fusing multiple metrics to characterize the scalable cumulative intensity of MHWs, which exhibits excellent identification reliability and superiority to effectively monitor the evolutionary patterns of various levels of MHW events. We find that five levels of global MHW events have presented an obvious spatial expansion and temporal enhancement pattern since the early 21st century, with the obvious spatial contraction (32.98 %) of weak events followed by the expansion (19.82 %) of extreme events at the highest growth rate of 0.07, primarily in the mid–low-latitude oceans and the Arctic. The results demonstrate that extreme MHW events dominate global MHW evolution patterns and that the expansion and intensification of such episodes have major implications for the event distribution and level structure. The new indicator is promising for directly measuring and identifying MHWs, and contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the evolution of MHWs in the context of global climate change.
Abstract: It has been reported that the sea level falls in the tropical Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) from the 1960s to the early 2000s. However, a rising trend of 4.05 ± 0.56 cm/decade has occurred during the recent two decades with our analysis showing that manometric sea level contributes 41% to this sea level rise. 30% of this rise is due to steric sea level (SSL) change in the upper 2,000 m with SSL rise in the upper 300 m of secondary importance. Conversely, thermal expansion below the thermocline (300–2,000 m), likely caused by water mass spread from the Southern Ocean, induces major contribution to SSL changes. Compared to existing studies demonstrating the contribution of thermal variations above the thermocline to sea level variability in the tropical SWIO, this study emphasizes the importance of ocean mass and deeper ocean changes in a warming climate. Plain Language Summary Global ocean sea level change is spatially and temporally nonuniform due to oceanic and atmospheric dynamics. The tropical Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) experienced a sea level fall from the 1960s to the early 2000s. However, a rapid sea level rise has occurred over the last two decades in the tropical SWIO that is faster than the global average. The ocean mass increase due to extra water input leads to an essential impact on sea level rise in the tropical SWIO. Compared to previous studies demonstrating the effect of thermal expansion in the upper 300 m, this study shows larger contributions from deeper ocean (300–2,000 m) warming over the past two decades. Overall, this study highlights the importance of ocean mass and deeper water thermal structure in regulating tropical SWIO sea level rise in a changing climate, as well as the need for observations and direct assessment of the abyssal ocean beneath 2,000 m. Key Points Rapid sea level rise occurs in the tropical Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) since the early 2000s The ocean mass addition and the upper 2,000 m ocean warming contribute significantly to the total sea level rise The upper 2,000 m ocean warming is primarily attributed to thermal expansion below the thermocline associated with the spread of water masses.
Abstract: Ambitious European Union (EU) policies are aiming to halt and reverse marine biodiversity loss in the current decade. However, EU environmental and conservation policies have so far fallen short of their targets. This study explores how the key actors in policy interpretation and implementation frame their understandings of these policy objectives, and how these framings influence the protection of marine biodiversity. The results of a Q‐methodological study undertaken with key actors from national, regional sea, and EU governance levels reveal the existence of two predominant frames. Key actors are divided between Environmental Protection and Sustainable Use‐focused understandings, with the first framing further partitioning into four distinct subframes. All the identified frames are internally coherent and are firmly held, therefore begging the question of how EU conservation policy should proceed, given that the same policy texts and the marine biodiversity crisis are perceived in distinctly different ways, with different actions prioritized. It is important to understand and reflect on the different positioning of key actors because these differences directly influence the achievement of marine biodiversity goals. The figure shows the overview of the five main framings in the understandings of the role EU policies in protecting marine nature among the key policy actors in the EU.
Abstract: Worldwide, states are gazetting new Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to meet the international commitment of protecting 30% of the seas by 2030. Yet, protection benefits only come into effect when an MPA is implemented with activated regulations and actively managed through continuous monitoring and adaptive management. To assess if actively managed MPAs are the rule or the exception, we used the Mediterranean and Black Seas as a case study, and retrieved information on monitoring activities for 878 designated MPAs in ten European Union (EU) countries. We searched for scientific and grey literature that provides information on the following aspects of MPA assessment and monitoring: ecological (e.g., biomass of commercially exploited fish), social (e.g., perceptions of fishers in an MPA), economic (e.g., revenue of fishers) and governance (e.g., type of governance scheme). We also queried MPA authorities on their past and current monitoring activities using a web-based survey through which we collected 123 responses. Combining the literature review and survey results, we found that approximately 16% of the MPA designations (N = 878) have baseline and/or monitoring studies. Most monitoring programs evaluated MPAs based solely on biological/ecological variables and fewer included social, economic and/or governance variables, failing to capture and assess the social-ecological dimension of marine conservation. To increase the capacity of MPAs to design and implement effective social-ecological monitoring programs, we recommend strategies revolving around three pillars: funding, collaboration, and technology. Following the actionable recommendations presented herein, MPA authorities and EU Member States could improve the low level of MPA monitoring to more effectively reach the 30% protection target delivering benefits for biodiversity conservation. [Display omitted] •Protection benefits occur only when an MPA is implemented and actively managed.•Literature and surveys were used to assess actively managed MPAs in Southern Europe.•Barely 16% of designated MPAs have baseline and/or monitoring studies.•Funding, technology, and collaboration strategies could increase MPAs' efficiency.
Abstract: Evidence of large‐scale biodiversity degradation in marine ecosystems has been reported worldwide, yet most research has focused on few species of interest or on limited spatiotemporal scales. Here we assessed the spatial and temporal changes in the taxonomic and functional composition of fish communities in European seas over the last 25 years (1994–2019). We then explored how these community changes were linked to environmental gradients and fishing pressure. We show that the spatial variation in fish species composition is more than two times higher than the temporal variation, with a marked spatial continuum in taxonomic composition and a more homogenous pattern in functional composition. The regions warming the fastest are experiencing an increasing dominance and total abundance of r‐strategy fish species (lower age of maturity). Conversely, regions warming more slowly show an increasing dominance and total abundance of K‐strategy species (high trophic level and late reproduction). Among the considered environmental variables, sea surface temperature, surface salinity and chlorophyll‐a most consistently influenced communities' spatial patterns, while bottom temperature and oxygen had the most consistent influence on temporal patterns. Changes in communities' functional composition were more closely related to environmental conditions than taxonomic changes. Our study demonstrates the importance of integrating community‐level species traits across multi‐decadal scales and across a large region to better capture and understand ecosystem‐wide responses and provides a different lens on community dynamics that could be used to support sustainable fisheries management.
Abstract: There is growing concern over climate models that project significant changes in the oceans, with consequences on marine biodiversity and human well-being. However, marine and coastal ecosystems respond differently to climate change-related stressors depending on the ecosystem, species composition and interactions, geomorphologic settings, and spatial distribution, but also on the presence of local stressors interacting cumulatively with climate change-related pressures. Our paper provides a comprehensive review of the current literature about the effects of climate-related pressures on marine and coastal ecosystems and how local stressors affect their resilience. Our work focuses on key marine and coastal ecosystems from three ecoregions: the Caribbean Sea (coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass beds), the Mediterranean Sea (the coral Cladocora caespitosa, maërl beds and seagrass beds) and the North-East Atlantic, which include kelp forests, maërl beds, salt marshes and seagrass beds. This review highlights the need for a more comprehensive, multi-species, and multi-stressors approach to predict better changes at the ecosystem and seascape levels of marine and coastal ecosystems. Nevertheless, there is enough evidence to argue that addressing locally key manageable stressors common to multiple ecosystems, such as nutrient enrichment, coastal development, hydrologic disturbances, anchoring or sedimentation, will reduce the identified adverse effects of climate change. This knowledge is critical for practical conservation actions and coastal and marine spatial management at the ecoregion scale and beyond.
Abstract: Recognizing nature as a legal subject could be understood as an innovative way to transform environmental law towards an ethos of respect and care. The Rights of Nature (RoN) movement gained traction at a time when planet Earth is facing unprecedented ecological degradation. So far, little attention has been given as to how RoN is interpreted and conceptualised and what its implications are to freshwater and marine ecosystem governance. Moreover, important questions remain insufficiently answered, including, for instance, the question of who grants such rights and on the basis of which legal mechanisms, who legally represents nature, or how such rights are actually being implemented and possibly enforced. This article explores the different legal conceptualizations of RoN, focusing on freshwater and marine ecosystems which have received particular attention in recent years in both the academic discourse and in policy practice – yet remain under immense pressure. It also investigates which legal mechanisms are being used to recognize these rights – e.g. court cases, laws, ordinances– and what their legal implications have been so far, including the challenges which have to be addressed to ensure that this innovative approach indeed helps transform how societies perceive and govern freshwater and marine ecosystems.
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