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Abstract: The transport sector is responsible for around 20% of global CO2 emissions, and road transport alone contributes to three-quarters of that share. A separate Emissions Trading System (ETS) in the EU will be implemented in 2027, covering road transport, buildings and additional sectors (mainly small industry). The likely outcomes of such policy are higher fuel prices, leading to less fuel consumption and reduced road transport emissions. Given that the inclusion of road transport in the EU ETS was originally proposed by the UK in the 2000s, and that the UK is exploring possible improvements to its own UK ETS, it is not impossible that the idea of emissions trading in road transport could be revisited in the UK. This article explores differences in perceptions of fuel price increases as a result of an increase in fuel duties or as a result of the introduction of a parallel ETS for road transport. This research employs a Serious Game to elicit perceptions. The game was designed to create situations where car drivers would need to make decisions in response to an increase in the pump price of fuel. Ultimately, the idea was to get the study participants to reflect on their travel decisions both in the game and in real life. Possible responses included changing their cars, modifying their travel behaviour and moving house. The data was analyzed using an interpretive approach, which contributed to the understanding of how participants experience and rationalize their decisions after fuel price increases. The main finding is that emissions trading seems to be seen more positively than an increase in fuel duties. The study participants associated emissions trading with a reduction in GHG emissions, and fuel duty increases to an increase in pump prices. When they were reminded that emissions trading would also cause pump prices to increase, they still seemed to be open to the idea of such a policy, and when they were reminded that the increase in fuel duties would also be aimed at reducing GHG emissions, they changed their attitude slightly towards a more positive one.
Abstract: Road transport is a significant contributor to Green House Gas (GHG) emissions in the European Union (EU) and is responsible for approximately 25% of total GHG emissions in the EU13. The European Commission has proposed stricter CO2 emissions targets for heavy-duty vehicles that require manufacturers to achieve a reduction of 90% in average fleet emissions from new vehicles by 2040 compared to a 2019 baseline. To meet these ambitious targets, there is an urgent need to explore alternative pathways away from conventional fossil fuel-based powertrain systems like electrified powertrains and carbon–neutral fuels. One promising option is the plug-in hybrid electric powertrain concept, which combines the advantages of both power sources, enabling improved fuel efficiency and reduced CO2 emissions. However, the potential of such a plug-in hybrid powertrain needs to be evaluated for heavy-duty trucks. This study focuses on the development of control strategies for the Energy Management System (EMS) of the above powertrain concept. First, a control strategy for the non-predictive EMS’s start/stop functionality and optimization of the torque split between the combustion engine and electric machine is developed and calibrated for efficient engine operation depending on the battery state of charge. In addition, a predictive EMS’s control strategy is developed that uses horizon information of the driving route for optimal utilization of electrical energy within the prediction horizon, thereby further enhancing fuel consumption reduction. The predictive EMS uses Adaptive Equivalent Consumption Minimization Strategy (A-ECMS) with Pontryagin’s Minimization Principle (PMP) for online equivalence factor adaptation, providing local optimal solutions in real-time. The study concludes with the energy savings achieved through the implementation of these strategies using real-world driving cycles in the heavy-duty transport sector.
Abstract: Road transport on one hand plays an important role in the world economy and significantly contributes to the global gross domestic product; on the other hand, it is one of the main sources of air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, mostly originating from the consumption of liquid fossil fuels. One of the main tools to monitor emissions, in an effort to reduce them, is to maintain inventories where emissions are estimated on a regular basis. Many countries maintain their own inventories, while there are also centralised databases gathering data from various countries and producing aggregated results, e.g. on total European Union level. However, maintaining emission inventories on a global scale is a tedious process mainly due to lack or poor quality of data for some countries and because of inconsistencies in the emission estimation methodologies followed. This article presents the methodology and results of a global road transport emission inventory, as part of the EDGAR (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research) v6.1 database. It covers the majority of countries and regions in the world, i.e. global road vehicle fleet emissions. The vehicle emission processes considered comprise exhaust, fuel evaporation, tyre and brake wear, and road abrasion. The methodology involves the collection and processing of the relevant statistical data, i.e. vehicle fleet, activity, and energy from various sources. This information is combined with the appropriate emission factors, resulting in emission calculations per country, year, and vehicle category. The dataset developed is validated by comparison against official inventories and thirdparty emission estimates. The current database can be used to obtain a global view of emissions from the road transport sector for the period 1990–2020. Significant conclusions can be reached from analysing this dataset, for example which countries contribute the most to each pollutant, which vehicle types are the biggest emitters and more. The dataset can be useful for emission and air quality modellers, scientists and policy makers and can help design better policies for the future.
Abstract: Exposure to fne particulate matter (PM2.5) is associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. In Europe, residential fuel combustion and road transport emissions contribute signifcantly to PM2.5. Toxicological studies indicate that PM2.5 from these sources is relatively more hazardous, owing to its high content of black and organic carbon. Here, we study the contribution of the emissions from these sectors to long-term exposure and excess mortality in Europe. We quantifed the impact of anthropogenic carbonaceous aerosols on excess mortality and performed a sensitivity analysis assuming that they are twice as toxic as inorganic particles. We fnd that total PM2.5 from residential combustion leads to 72,000 (95% confdence interval: 48,000–99,000) excess deaths per year, with about 40% attributed to carbonaceous aerosols. Similarly, road transport leads to about 35,000 (CI 23,000–47,000) excess deaths per year, with 6000 (CI 4000–9000) due to carbonaceous particles. Assuming that carbonaceous aerosols are twice as toxic as other PM2.5 components, they contribute 80% and 37%, respectively, to residential fuel combustion and road transport-related deaths. We uncover robust national variations in the contribution of each sector to excess mortality and emphasize the importance of country-specifc emission reduction policies based on national characteristics and sectoral shares.
Abstract: This article analyzes the recently decided EU-wide emission trading scheme for road transport and heating fuels. The so-called ETS2 is part of the ‘Fit for 55’ policy package, which also includes tighter vehicle emission standards, a reform of energy taxation, provisions to enhance advanced fuel infrastructure and a Social Climate Fund to alleviate financial pressure for low-income households. We argue that the ETS2 should be understood as an element of a broader policy mix, which considers multiple market failures, fairness both within and across EU member states within the institutional constraints of EU policy making. We conclude by discussing specific potential modifications to the design of the ETS2 that could help achieve the EU's climate target in an efficient and equitable way. These include linking ETS and ETS2, reducing price volatility, increasing the size of the Social Climate fund, and clarifying penalties for countries missing targets under the Effort Sharing Regulation.
Abstract: This study examines the cointegration and short- and long-run causal relationships between economic growth and CO2 emissions, fuel consumption and the amount of freight transported by road transport in the Visegrad Group countries between 1990 and 2019. The autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) bound testing methodology was used to develop the results for each tested dependent variable. The results confirmed a long-run cointegration between economic growth and fuel consumption by road transport in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. In addition, a longrun relationship between economic growth and freight volume and CO2 emissions by transport was demonstrated for Slovakia. For Poland, there was only a long-run relationship between energy consumption by road freight transport and CO2 emissions. In the short run, relationships were shown between the volume of freight transported by the road freight transport sector and CO2 emissions for Hungary and Poland. Short-run relationships between economic growth and the volume of freight transported in Poland, the Czech Republic and Hungary are also interesting observations. The obtained results expand the information resources needed to make decisions on the direction of change in road transport. Additionally, the results can be used to prepare a proper environmental policy for road freight transport within the framework of the European Green Deal.
Abstract: Two trends have shaped the European car market over the past decade: electrification and SUVisation. Recently, they have merged in a new product: the electric sport utility vehicle. This paper contrasts the view that regards this innovation as a technological solution to mitigate road transport emissions with a broader view that takes into account the battery requirement and profitability of such type of electric car. This broad view is formalised in a system dynamics model that captures the potential effects of supply side constraints. Four scenarios are simulated. The results show that the levels of CO2 emissions of new cars are substantially reduced only in the one that assumes lower motorisation. Based on these simulations, the conclusion that the diffusion of electric sport utility vehicles does not necessarily contribute to mitigating car emissions in Europe is drawn. Less reliance on technology fixes, downsizing and reduced motorisation are identified as solutions worth investigating to meet ambitious climate goals. Further research on how vehicle manufacturers distribute batteries is needed.
Abstract: This paper analyses historical energy consumption trends of the EU road transport sector and examines the role of key determinants, such as economic and population growth, fuel prices, passenger and tonne-kilometres and vehicle fleet characteristics. In light of the EU 2030 and 2050 energy and climate targets, the paper assesses the energy efficiency and decarbonisation progress from 2000 to 2018. A detailed analysis is carried out using a balanced panel dataset from 1995 to 2018 and a test for causality between energy consumption and the selected explanatory variables. The results suggest that the declining trend of the normalised energy consumption of cars, trucks and light vehicles, which both dropped significantly in 2018 compared to 2000, can be related to energy efficiency and decarbonisation policies adopted by the EU and its Member States over the studied period. Decomposition analysis based on the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index technique confirms the role of energy efficiency gains in curbing energy consumption of road transport, even with the strong upward force exerted by motorisation and population effects, especially in passenger transport. It also suggests that during the recession years (2008–2013), road transport consumption fell due to a sharp drop in the mileage but not in the motorisation effect, which continued to drive up consumption even in this period. Despite some positive developments, the increased demand for road transportation has led to continued energy consumption growth. This has been further compounded by differences between real-world and vehicle certification fuel consumption data. The article highlights the need to strengthen the current policy framework at the EU and MS levels in the next decade to reach the long-term decarbonisation targets. In the context of these targets, a more in-depth investigation of the real impact of energy efficiency and decarbonisation efforts will also become increasingly important.
Abstract: This study evaluates whether a motorist’s choice over green cars (i.e., cars with featuring low CO2 emissions) and non-green cars (i.e., cars featuring high CO2 emissions) is efficient. To this end, we present a micro-founded model of motorist choice incorporating the impact of eco-incentives and taxation on CO2 emissions. Subsequently, we implement data envelopment analysis on a large database of new cars registered in 2019 to evaluate efficiency. The results show that the motorist’s optimal choice (green car) does not coincide with the efficient choice. Moreover, motorist choice is mainly guided by the high price of green cars. On average, the efficient choice coincides with cars that end up in the dark area (they do not benefit from eco-incentives and do not pay the pollution tax), being the cheapest, the lightest, the least powerful (low Kw) and petrol fuelled. On average, these elements pertain to Italian motorists with respect to their tastes; most importantly, their budgets do not go well with the high costs of green cars.
Abstract: Sustainable development and the reduction of air pollution are the most important goals of green policy nowadays. The EU has established and recommends introducing Green Deal regulations into the legislation of members. These environmental law regulations concern various sectors of the economy. Road transport is among the most important sectors because it has a negative impact on the environment. Polish road cargo transport enterprises predominate in terms of the number of trucks on the EU transport market, so the reduction of exhaust emissions will help to improve air quality and the carbon neutrality of the European economy. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce effective incentives in this area, so that the goals of the Green Deal are accepted and implemented by the Polish road carriers. In the article, the environmental protection policy of Polish large and medium-sized road transport enterprises is spotlighted. As the goal of the research and the article, the authors established that it is possible to define the set of the most important of the factors anticipated by enterprises that should be taken into consideration in the process of regulating this sector in Poland to make the process more efficient.
Results: As shown by the presented research results, individual companies have specific expectations concerning incentives offered by the regulator, which, if provided, could contribute to more pro-ecological behaviour. Implementation of instruments supporting enforcement of a given standard and meeting the expectations of companies in this respect provides systemic benefits for the state and the environment and thus for the entire society as well as for the services providers, meaning the transportation companies. This in turn improves environmental parameters by reducing the level of its degradation through transport companies' pro-ecological activities, which translates directly into real environmental and economic benefits. It is therefore reasonable that in the implementation of the tasks resulting from the European Green Deal (henceforth simply referred to as Green Deal), individual Member States and the European Union as a whole took into account the views and opinions of individual entrepreneurs in terms of further pro-ecological activities. This will contribute to more effective and efficient regulation and a shortening of the time needed to reduce the environmental impact of road transport.
Abstract: This paper inspects the environmental Kuznets curve (EKC) in various transport sectors in 13 European Union (EU) countries. The study uses the augmented mean group estimator (AMG) estimator to examine the relationships between carbon (CO2) emissions, income, and energy consumption of four transport modes, such as road, maritime, rail, and air, between 1995 and 2019. The outcomes illustrate that the EKC hypothesis is valid for six countries in air transport, four in maritime transport, three in rail transport, and six in road transport. In addition, the findings indicate that fossil fuels significantly increase CO2 emissions from transportation modes. In light of the study’s findings, EU countries should improve energy efficiency in the transportation sector to become carbon neutral by 2050. In order to ensure an environmental balance between transport modes, policymakers should support innovative activities to increase renewable fuel consumption.
Abstract: The Italian National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) includes, among other measures, investments in hydrogen vehicle refuelling stations, intending to promote the use of fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) for long-haul freight transport. This paper evaluates the impact that this action could have on CO2 emissions and fuel consumption, focusing on a case study of the Campania region. The proposed approach, which can also be transferred to other geographical contexts, requires the implementation of a freight road transport simulation model; this model is based on the construction of a supply model, the estimation of road freight demand, and an assignment procedure for computing traffic flows. This study covers the period from 2025 to 2040, according to the forecasts of the NRRP and some assumptions on the action effects; moreover, it is assumed that hydrogen is entirely produced from renewable sources (green hydrogen). The key findings from three different scenarios show that savings between 423,832 and 778,538 tonnes of CO2 , and between 144 and 264 million litres of diesel could be obtained.
Abstract: The transport sector is one of the highest greenhouse gas emitters in the EU. The JRC's DIONE model calculates the costs for road transport CO2 emission reduction, based on functions associating vehicle emission reduction with their costs (cost curves). This paper describes the development of cost curves for a wide range of additional powertrains and classes of trucks, busses and coaches, and trailers. The model extension is a basis for analyzing the socio-economic impacts of reducing O2 emissions from heavy-duty vehicles.
Abstract: The paper studies the current situation of the multimodal freight transport sector in Romania, using the analysis of its external and internal environment. The goal is to find out what are the pluses and minuses of this sector and what strategies must be adopted so that the targets set by the European Green Deal can be reached. This EU strategy emphasizes that, in order to reduce pollution, emphasis must be placed on multimodal transport, with an emphasis on rail transport. Thus, the general external environment is defined by the following factors: demographic, economic, technological, ecological, etc. While the labor force crisis in the road transport of goods deepens, and the average age of the staff in the railway sector is getting higher, the policy of the EU and, implicitly, of the EU member states stimulates multimodal transport, in order to reduce CO2 emissions. The Porter model shows that, despite the forces acting in a negative direction, the multimodal freight transport market is attractive. At the same time, from the strategic group belong both multinational corporations and enterprises with domestic capital, which underlines the attractiveness of the market. Thus, it is necessary to apply the strategy that involves a reduction of costs, but not by decreasing the quality of the services offered. On the other hand, the SWOT analysis indicates that multimodal freight transport in Romania is in the ideal/maximum situation. Therefore, it is necessary to apply an aggressive strategy. Thus a net competitive advantage will be ensured. The strategy consists in stimulating rail freight transport, which will contribute to reducing pollution.
Abstract: Die folgende Aufgabe befasst sich mit den Hintergründen zum Abgasskandal, der der Öffentlichkeit vor mehr als sechs Jahren bekannt wurde. Dabei wird zunächst die Funktionsweise des Drei‐Wege‐Katalysators im klassischen Benziner diskutiert, bevor auf die Besonderheiten in DFieselfahrzeugzen und dem damit verbundenen Abgasbetrug eingegangen wird. Am Ende wird die Aufgabe durch eine kurze Rechnung zur Reichweite eines korrekt funktionierenden Diesel‐Katalysatorsystems abgerundet.
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