Maritime Security

• Maritime spaces as a strategic environment for the climate security of the European Union; García-Llave, Ruth ; Echeverry Andrade, Fabio Héctor ; Molina, Ciro Jaramillo; Transportation research procedia, 2025, Vol.83, p.203-208

Abstract: Today, environmental degradation, understood as the loss of biodiversity and pollution attributed to climate change, has increased vulnerability and exposure to peace and security risks in coastal zones and maritime spaces. Extreme weather events, rising sea levels and loss of marine resources are factors that act as catalysts for instability and insecurity in the global maritime domain by fuelling transnational crime, piracy, maritime boundary disputes and geopolitical fragility because of access to natural resources on the ocean floor. Against this backdrop, in order to safeguard security interests and ensure ocean governance in each of its sea basins and outermost regions, the European Union addresses climate change and environmental degradation as a threat to maritime security by linking each of the priority objectives defined in the revised Maritime Security Strategy (2023) to their protection in the interests of so-called climate security. This paper addresses the consideration of climate change as a non-traditional threat to maritime security, the main lines of action envisaged by the European Union to counteract it and the mechanisms and initiatives planned to promote peace, security, and freedom of navigation. To this end, we will analyse the official documents and the scientific-academic narrative linking climate change and maritime security, as well as those reflecting the official position of the European Union in this field., in order to identify possible gaps and future lines of action to be taken by the actors involved.

• Maritime security threats: Classifying and associating patterns in piracy and armed robbery incidents; Sevgili, Coskan ; Cakir, Erkan ; Fiskin, Remzi; Ocean & coastal management, 2025-07, Vol.266, p.107685, Article 107685

Abstract: Piracy and armed robbery (P&AR) incidents are one of the most significant security problems for the maritime industry. These incidents, which negatively affect maritime activities and cause disruptions in the global supply chain, continue in many different parts of the world. This study focuses on the Gulf of Guinea, the region with the highest occurrence of P&AR today. The study begins with data pre-processing, applied to a total of 1076 P&AR reports from the Gulf of Guinea, sourced from the Global Integrated Shipping Information System (GISIS) database. Various machine learning (ML) algorithms are then utilized to determine the best-performing model for imputing missing data. Next, the Chi-square Automatic Interaction Detection (CHAID) algorithm is employed to classify P&AR incidents. Finally, the Apriori algorithm, a method from Association Rule Mining (ARM), is used to uncover hidden relationships and associations within the dataset. Additionally, the findings are visualised to make interpreting the results more accessible and transparent. The analysis results reveal that weapons, coastal authority, and ship size have a significant impact on the occurrence of attacks. Robbery attacks typically target storerooms using knives during night port activities. In contrast, kidnapping incidents involve armed attackers directly targeting the accommodation areas of ships with low tonnage and speed. In hijacking incidents, large groups of attackers operate in international waters, primarily targeting tanker ships aged over 12 years with low freeboard. In conclusion, the findings of this study aim to assist authorities and ship operating in the region in implementing necessary precautions.

• Hotspot analysis of global piracy and armed robbery incidents at sea: A decadal review of regional vulnerabilities and security strategies; Küçük, Neslihan ; Yildiz, Serdar ; Uğurlu, Özkan ; Wang, Jin; Ocean & coastal management, 2025-01, Vol.260, p.107480, Article 107480

Abstract : Maritime piracy (MP) and armed robbery at sea (ARS) pose significant threats to global maritime security, affecting trade and economic stability. These incidents, whether successful or not, can lead to loss of life, and long-lasting mental and psychological health impacts on ship crews. This study utilizes the spatial density analysis via the Geographic Information System to explore the global distribution of MP and ARS incidents from 2010 to 2021. Analysing 3241 incidents that occurred across the globe over two distinct periods, 2010–2015 and 2016–2021, the study has identified and visualized hotspot areas globally, revealing the geographic patterns with an aim to assist the strategic mitigation of these threats. Regional analyses indicate a shift in piracy activities; Southeast Asia shows a decrease in attacks (halved) in the Straits of Malacca coupled with persistent threats in the Singapore Strait. Conversely, East Africa has seen a reduction in piracy due to effective international maritime patrols and legal frameworks, although the area remains volatile due to persistent socio-economic and political challenges. The findings demonstrate that geopolitical instability, legal gaps, and economic disparities significantly contribute to MP and ARS. The study advocates for sustained international cooperation, enhanced legal measures, and continuous monitoring to effectively combat these threats. Future research could benefit from a more detailed temporal analysis, using different methodological approaches (e.g., incorporating time-series analysis) to capture seasonal or short-term variations in incident occurrences. This could provide additional insights into the dynamics of piracy and armed robbery incidents and inform policy and security strategy adjustments.

• Asia-Pacific maritime security cooperation: Challenges and opportunities; Jin, Yongming ; Feng, Yuan; Marine policy, 2024-02, Vol.160, p.105942, Article 105942

Abstract: The Asia-Pacific region is currently navigating a complex landscape of maritime security challenges, with escalating territorial disputes and non-traditional security threats posing risks to both regional and global stability. In response to this, the Ocean University of China hosted the "Asia-Pacific Maritime Security Cooperation" seminar in Qingdao on 29 June, 2023. This seminar was a collaborative effort, meticulously organized by the Institute of Marine Development of Ocean University of China, the Sino-Australian Research Consortium for Coastal Management, and the Global Governance Institution. It convened scholars and experts from regional nations to engage in in-depth discussions on pivotal issues, including the U.S. Indo-Pacific Strategy and its impact on regional security, the South China Sea disputes and resolution approaches, and the significance and function of ASEAN in regional integration. The seminar served as a crucible for constructive dialogue, significantly enhancing mutual understanding and trust among regional stakeholders. It functioned as a catalyst, igniting innovative ideas for advancing international maritime cooperation and dialogue, and proposed novel solutions and strategies to navigate the shared challenges and opportunities in the maritime domain.

• Examination of the Critical Infrastructure Resilience Directive From the Maritime Point of View; Alexopoulos, Marcos Julien ; Niemi, Arto ; Skobiej, Bartosz ; Sill Torres, Frank; Journal of common market studies, 2025-03, Vol.63 (2), p.667-678

Abstract:  This article evaluates the implementation challenges of the Critical Entities Resilience (CER) Directive in comparison with the Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive and the Floods Directive (FD) within the European Union (EU). CER, which aims to enhance the resilience of critical entities, including critical maritime infrastructure, allows for considerable interpretative flexibility by Member States in defining critical entities and security measures. This flexibility could lead to heterogeneous impacts, introducing inconsistencies that hinder the functioning of the single market, and thereby resilience uniformity across the EU. In contrast, the FD's structured approach with clear objectives and detailed reporting requirements has led to a more consistent and effective implementation. This paper argues that the lack of specificity in the CER Directive may undermine its effectiveness. It suggests that adopting a more structured approach similar to the FD could improve the implementation consistency and resilience of critical entities across the EU.

• Quantitative analysis of maritime piracy at global and regional scales to improve maritime security; Zhang, Yang ; Zhai, Yujia ; Fu, Shanshan ; Shi, Meiyu ; Jiang, Xuanyu; Ocean & coastal management, 2024-02, Vol.248, p.106968, Article 106968

Abstract: The shipping industry has long been hindered by piracy, which threatens the lives of the crews of ships as well as maritime security. Understanding the characteristics of maritime piracy across different scales can help optimize global routes to reduce shipping risks and improve maritime security. In this study, we propose a framework for exploring and comparing the characteristics of maritime piracy at global and regional scales. Data on piracy incidents were collected from Global Integrated Shipping Information System, developed by the International Maritime Organization, and were reconstructed by using text mining and geospatial techniques. The distribution of the key variables and the spatiotemporal distribution of incidents of maritime piracy were investigated, and records of these incidents were divided into six categories. The differences in the characteristics of maritime piracy across categories were then quantitatively examined. The results show that the Gulf of Guinea had the largest number of pirates, and the distance from incidents to the shoreline, the weapons used by pirates, the types and status of the attacked ships, and the area that the incidents frequented varied significantly across regions. The results of this study can be used by the shipping industry to reduce the risk of maritime piracy.

• Cybersecurity in Maritime Transport: An International Perspective on Regulatory Frameworks and Countermeasures; Melnyk, Oleksiy ; Drozdov, Oleksandr ; Kuznichenko, Serhii; Lex portus (Online), 2025-03, Vol.11 (1), p.7-19

Abstract:  This article combines legal, technical, and organizational aspects to propose a comprehensive approach to addressing cybersecurity of maritime transport. The article highlights key gaps in the international legal framework and suggests a unified legal framework to regulate these cyber threats from a maritime transportation perspective. The article focuses on technical solutions but is supported by professional training in a virtual environment. The main innovation of this article is the interdisciplinary approach, combining technological advances with social research and legal analysis. Among other proposals, developing an international maritime cybersecurity convention, a standard global incident registry and a transnational data sharing system are proposed. Such a systematic framework would have serious potential to address critical safety issues and improve the safety of the global shipping industry.

• Maritime piracy: Determining factors and the role of deterrence; Triantafillou, Anna ; Bardaka, Ioanna ; Vrettakos, Ioannis ; Zombanakis, George; African security review, 2023-04, Vol.32 (2), p.166-183

Abstract: Τhe global economic downturn during the pandemic and the current geopolitical tensions may be marking a resurgence in maritime piracy, rendering close examination of its determinants useful for the international shipping industry and for policymakers. We contribute to pertinent literature by focusing on legal factors that affect sea piracy in Nigeria and Somalia, two countries that feature prominently among the traditional piracy hotspots of West and East Africa respectively. Using data for the period 2002-2020 and panel estimation, we assert prior research by finding institutional factors, mainly corruption, and socioeconomic factors, notably youth unemployment, being conducive to maritime piracy. Specifically, we find institutional factors to be more important for Nigeria, while socioeconomic factors to stand out in the case of Somalia. The results obtained confirm our key hypothesis that in both cases examined pirates have a preference to attack ships with Western European countries' flags, where legislation tends to be less severe in terms of punishment for the crime of maritime piracy. Our findings support the argument that to discourage pirates from exploiting differences in national legal frameworks worldwide, deterrence of maritime piracy needs to be coordinated at the international level.

• La incidencia de la seguridad marítima en el golfo de Guinea sobre España; Urrutia, Francisco Delgado; Revista UNISCI, 2024-01, Vol.2024 (64), p.165-186

Resumen: Este artículo trata de demostrar que la situación de inseguridad en el golfo de Guinea constituye un problema de importancia para la seguridad de la Unión Europea, y más concretamente para la seguridad de España. En este sentido, se defiende que la forma en la que la Unión se ha aproximado a este problema de seguridad, no ha sido ni es el adecuado ya que, a pesar de reconocer la situación de inseguridad en esta región, no se han aplicado los mismos parámetros a la hora de evaluar la necesidad de implementar una operación militar en el Cuerno de África y en el golfo de Guinea. El resultado ha sido el mantenimiento de la operación “Atalanta” en una zona sin ataques piratas desde 2019 hasta finales del 2023, y la ausencia de una misión similar en el golfo de Guinea.

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